Tinter Abbey Essay Example For Students

Tinter Abbey Essay Analysis of Tintern AbbeyWhereas most individuals tend to see nature as a playhouse that should alter and self-destruct to their every need, William Wordsworth had a very different view. Wordsworth perceived nature as a sanctuary where his views of life, love, and his creator were eventually altered forever. The intensity of Wordsworths passion for nature elevated him from a boy into the inspiring man and poet in which he is recognized to be today. One of the most compelling works Wordsworth ever devised was that of Lines Composed a Few Miles Above Tintern Abbey. The poem enlightens the reader on the awesome power and depth of nature, which Wordsworth has discovered in his trials and tribulations upon the earth. Thus, to full understand the significance of nature in all lives told through Lines Composed A few Miles Above Tintern Abbey one must understand the setting and mood, as well as comprehend the rhyme scheme, and use of many diverse poetic devices that interact within the poem the poem. We will write a custom essay on Tinter Abbey specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now One is able to gain insight into Lines Composed a Few Lines Above Tintern Abbey by first trying to understand the mood and setting of the poem. Although it is a miniature of the long poem Wordsworth never quite wrote (Robyn Young p.409) it lacked nothing as far as depth and intensity goes. Wordsworth was very skilled in such areas, although his writing may be come very complex it is said that it was a result of the spontaneous overflow of emotion (Gale Net). Wordsworth wrote this poem, as cited by Wordsworth without any part of it was written down till I reached Bristol (F.W. Bateson p.191). Wordsworth was a firm believer that man should find an immanent force that unites them with their physical and spiritual environments (Jan Shoemaker p.1). As Wordsworth revisits this beloved place of his (Tintern Abbey) he is reminded of how he once perceived this sanctuary. Wordsworth attempts to compare and contrast two worlds, Brian Barbour states Wordsworths basic strategy is to appeal to the spiritual while remaining entirely within the natural order(Barbour p.154). When he was a young child he came to this valley using it as his own personal playground. He never gave nature the respect and praise that it so deserved. He just saw nature through a young childs eyes; he saw a tree in which to climb, grass in which was simply to frolic in. The cliffs, springs, and the sky were merely there for his pleasure; never did Wordsworth begin to see nature for what it really was. Wordsworth grew and changed dramatically maturing spiritually, mentally and physically. In his maturing he began to see more of what nature really had to offer him. During his last visit before he would leave for five long years, Wordsworth realized natures true beauty and respected and praised it. He had finally realized that one could only find God in his purest form in his own most perfect creation Nature. Harold Bloom states The visible body of Nature is more then a outer testimony of the Spirit of Go d to him; it is our only way to God (Modern p.4). He had learned that nature was the true sanctuary for God, not some man made church, the lord didnt intend us to worship him in a man made structure, which defaced his creations where he dwelled. Wordsworth realized that his fellow man has strayed from God by getting caught up in all the material things in which our society provides us and this deeply saddened him. Brian Barbour informs us that the human mind was building a world in which the human spirit could not live (Brian Barbour p.154). Wordsworth now realized that this place has in so many ways kept him in touch with his creator and with his inner self. Once that Wordsworth returns from this journey he comes to his place of sanctuary to find that he once again sees it in a whole different perspective. When he is upon his valley he is over whelmed with gratitude. He is in a sense in awe and as Stephen Gill states he is utterly intoxicated with nature (Stephen Gill P. 10). He re alizes that what was once thought his playground is actually the playground of God. He feels ashamed that he could at one time not realized what natures true purpose is. He now knows that nature is not something that should not be destroyed and replaced with houses, streets, and buildings, but rather something that should be greatly admired and respected for all its beauty. There was a time when he saw nature with just the naked eye but now he views nature with all his senses so he can grasp its true beauty. This place not only changed the way he lived and perceived his life, but it also changed his ways of writing. Once he could grasp the true beauty of nature he was able to relate his life, love, and his surrounding in general to it. Therefore, the mood was one of the main driving forces of the poem. The poem was written with a very descriptive and effective outline of the setting, which added to the intensity of the poem. Harold Bloom states although it is written as the present Tintern Abbey, as a poem, ends with so emphatic an emphasis upon memory (Modern p.132). The setting is mainly talked about in the first paragraph, Brain Barbour states paragraph one presents the world of nature (Brian Barbour p.152). Barbour also sell the reader that Wordsworth believes the basis of region in ultimately in himself (Barbour p.161). In the first paragraph Geoffery H. Hartman states that Wordsworth feels the drawn-out words express a mind that remains in somewhat of a sad perplexity, a mind that tries to locate in time what is lost (Geoffrey H. Hartman p.29). The setting of the poem is in the Wye Valley with a view of the church of Tintern Abbey in the distance. He had a place positioned under a tree where he would come to repeatedly to sit and reflect on his life. These surroundings easily engulfed Wordsworth and made him in a sense drunk on nature. The Wye Valley is said to be a place of great beauty in which one could easily begin to question themselves about what they know and understand about the awesome tranquility and peacefulness of nature. Although one may feel the need to readily describe the surroundings of the Wye Valley, Wordsworth keeps the setting very much generalized. Wordsworth just simply gave the obvious characteristics of the valley not enough to capture the true physical beauty of it. One can derive from the poem that it was written or speaks about a time during the spring months. Unripe fruits and hardly hedgerows (Tintern Abbey lines 15) indicate that this takes place during a time where fruits are just beginning their growth. Wordsworth also speaks of plots of cottage-ground (Tintern Abbey line 11), in, which he refers to fields in which ones plants. Orchards in which life has just begun to spring from were present in the valley, which also in dicates new growth. All of this to Wordsworth is a reminder of the renewal and change that surrounds him every day, and inspires him to rejoice in the fact that he too has renewed his life, love, and beliefs along with the rebirthing cycles of nature. The scenery all around him is new and green; everything is starting over, full of life and the anticipation to grow. Wordsworth recognized this and the fact that he too has change from his last visit, and this fills him with inspiration to learn and love more. In summary Wordsworth use the setting in such a way to paint a vivid picture in the readers mind.Wordsworth used a type on rhyme scheme that is not present in many poems of his time but the lack a popularity of the format does not affect the magnificence of the poem. Lines composed a few miles above Tintern Abbey was written in blank verse, which consists of unrhymed iambic pentameter. Blank verse imitates the rhythms of natural speech(Gale Net). Each line is composed of five iam bs, which are units consisting of an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. Iambic pentameter is usually rhymed but Wordsworth made up for his lack in rhyming with his great use of various poetic devices. Wordsworth used the phrase, and the (Gale Net), several times through out the poem, the recitation of the phrase is intended to produce a hypnotic effect. (Gale Net p.2). Whether Wordsworth wanted his reader to in a sense feel the powerful hypnotic abilities of nature or whether he wanted his reader to feel as though he did, utterly intoxicated by nature (Stephen Gill p.10). Wordworths usage of incantation is not very noticeable unless one really understands the points that he is trying to make. There are also several instances in which Wordsworth uses alliteration in the poem. Alliteration is the repetition of the same constant sounds or different vowel sounds at the beginning of words or in the stressed syllables. Brian Barbour states that verse paragraphs one and t wo are each independent, yet they play off one another as statement and response (Brain Barbour p.152). Barbour also informs the reader that the fourth verse paragraph will be to defend what has been defined and challenged, and paragraph five will proclaim that there is a social dimension to all he has presented (Brain Barbour p. 153). In the first paragraph which consists of lines 1 through 22, the predominate sound that one tends to hear while reading is the s sound. This in a way gives the reader the sense of being upon the hill with the whirling winds and the distant roar of the ocean along with the Wye River. Sent up, in silence, from among the trees With some uncertain notice, as might seem of vagrant dwellers in the houseless woods, Or of some Hermits cave, where by his fire the Hermit sits alone. (Tintern Abbey lines l9-22). In the second paragraph along with the predominant s sound Wordsworth uses the w in a small portion to somewhat enhance the effect of the wind. The thir d paragraph, which consists of lines 50 through 57 the predominant sound is that of f which can be interpreted as another wind effect but could also be the sound of leaves. This use alliteration indicates his position under a tree where he sits to admire the Wye Valley when the fretful stir unprofitable, and the fever of the world. (Tintern Abbey lines 52-53). It is believed that in the later part of his poem the alliteration slows down and eventually stops, because he becomes engulfed in the deeper aspects of the poem rather than the physical and mental descriptions of the place he is. Wordsworth cannot help but to be marveled by the magnifiance of the external nature, along with the deeper lining of his environment. The combination of the two impresses a vivid picture of love, life, and spirituality in his head. In summary his use on blank verse and alliteration as well as incantation greatly allows the reader to experience the poem on several levels. .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .postImageUrl , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:hover , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:visited , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:active { border:0!important; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:active , .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28 .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9d6f9a9ef9155fc72004efc22889ef28:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Management Techniques For The Red-Cockaded Woodpec EssayWordsworth also uses symbolism to his advantage to increase the readers enjoyment. Wordsworth uses symbolism very often in this poem, it is sometimes not seen at first glance because mainly lies in the underlining of the poem. Brian Barbour states Nature plus thought leads to purified feeling (Brian Barbour p. 153).During his boyish days Wordsworth saw nature as simply something for his own entertainment, not something that should be discovered in entirely different level. Brain Barbour describes at this time words worth unwittingly, foregone the hierarchy of faculties and lived by appetite, not by reason (Brian Barbo ur p.163). Five years ago when he first began to notice his surrounding for what they really were, he saw nature as a place which mankind had strayed from. Wordsworth saw what the earth was meant to be, without all of mans corruptions and faults. Now that he is back in the present day, Wordsworth sees nature as a sanctuary, a place of God. It is here that he truly found his creator and all his glory, and now nature will forever be his safe haven to escape from all the worldly corruptions Therefore the use of symbolism greatly enhanced the diversity of the poem. Wordsworth was a man of many talents; he was able to use many poetic devices to the full potential one of the greatest attributes to the poem was the use of imagery and that of allusion. Wordsworth used imagery with great precision and perfection. Wordsworth is able to portray the nature in various ways; Harold Bloom says that Wordsworth believes that nature is not an object to be seen, but a ubiquitous presence to be felt(Blooms p.37). In the beginning of the poem he says, These waters, rolling from their mountain-springs with a soft inland murmur-Once again do I behold these steep and lofty cliffs. This has the ability to paint a very vivid picture in ones mind. Wordsworths Tintern Abbey has always and forever will be a poetic piece of great creativity. Wordsworths creative usage of allusion plays a very important role in the poem. Brian Barbour states What Wordsworth has done, with audacious wit, is to make nature replace grace: nature not grace, not grace, is the source (and so o n) of the moral life Brian Barbour p.165). He is able to use this device in many forms, which enables us to look past the written words to discover the deeper meaning behind them. In the first paragraph Wordsworth is describing the setting and partially the mood, but beyond that he is describing the fact that he has become engulfed and grounded in nature. He tells us how nature has forever been a part of his makeup and always will be due to what he has now discovered. Wordsworth implies also in the first paragraph that mankind and nature as well as the past and present should be harmonized. Wordsworth goes on in the poem to imply that he now has taken all faith out of the worldly things that he once cherished and placed them into nature itself. Wordsworth also tries to tell us that unlike the material things of mankind, nature is our only restorative source. In the last paragraph Wordsworth refers to his My dear, dear Friend, (line ll6) the individual he is referring to is his siste r. He was very close to his sister throughout his life, in this paragraph, Wordsworth is implying to his sister, What I have already experienced you will experience; what nature has ministered to me, she will, in future, minister to you. The same moral benevolence will form in you. (Brian Barbour p. l66) In summary Wordsworth greatly added to the depth of Tintern Abbey with the use of allusions. .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .postImageUrl , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:hover , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:visited , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:active { border:0!important; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:active , .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534 .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5b3fde1c2a1d12c31cd85ec163d0d534:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Rubin v Coors Brewing Co EssayIn order to understand Wordsworths Lines Composed a Few Miles Above TinternAbbey one must be able to identify with the favorable setting, inspiring mood, grasp the significance of the many poetic devices and discern between what is pure in entirety and what is tainted among us, which has the sole intention to corrupt. The reader viewpoint of nature in a sense is altered, as Wordsworth is erudite about the wonders of our mother nature. One must learn to live in harmony with nature to fully understand our true character and to enjoy the gracious gifts of natural world that have so graciously bestowed upon us all. Works CitedBarbour, Brian. Between Two Worlds. Nineteenth-Century Literature. California Press(1993): 14 7-168Bateson, F.W. Wordsworth a Re-Interpretation. London: Lowe and Brydone (Printers) Limited, 1956. Bloom, Harold. Blooms Major Poets. Pennsylvania: Chelsea House Publishers, 1999. Bloom, Harold. Modern Critical Views. New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1985. Gill, Stephen. A Life. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. Hartman, Geoffery H. The Unremarkable Wordsworth. Vol. 34. Minnesota: University of Minnesota, 1987. Shoemaker, Jan. Bill and Gus. Online http://FirstSearch.oclc.org. Jan 27, 2000. Wordsworth, William. Detroit: Gale Company, 1999. Online Exploring Poetry. Feb 22, 2000. Wordsworth, William. Lines Composed. Online http://www.library.com/poems, Feb 29, 2000Young, Robyn V. Poetry Criticism. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale Company, 1992

Cointelpro essays

Cointelpro essays The United Sates Federal Bureau of Investigation put together a counterintelligence program or Cointelpro to investigate and disrupt political dissent within the United States. Cointelpro operations targeted organizations that were thought to have politically radical movements. It started in 1956 and went on until 1971. During the Cold War, the communist and socialist party were targeted by FBI counterintelligence, whose purpose was not only to investigate, but take actions to neutralize any political dissent. As the years went by, the FBIs focus shifted to emerging anti-war and civil rights groups. These groups were thought of as communist front organizations. The largest cointelpro campaigns targeted the Social Workers Party, the New Left (which included many anti-war groups such as Students for a Democratic Society and the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), and Black nationalists groups such as the Black Panther Party and the Nation of Islam. Other groups targeted were the American Indian Movement, Feminists, and gay and lesbian groups. The methods that were used in cointelpro were: infiltration, psychological warfare, harassment through the legal system, and illegal force and violence. The FBI would try to infiltrate organizations by becoming members so they could find out information from the inside. They would use psychological warfare by spreading misinformation and making anonymous letters and phone calls. One of the FBIs most harmful tactics in cointelpro was harassment through the legal system. They presented false evidence and gave perjured testimony against some activists, while they falsely arrested and imprisoned others. The FBI would also use illegal force and violence to intimidate political dissidents. An example of a cointelpro tactic is the Black Panther Party coloring book that was created by the FBI and sent to sponsors of the organ ...

Police Association of New Orleans v. City of New orleans Case Study

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Sport and media Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Sport and media - Essay Example Therefore, twitter and the like of Facebook and Instagram have become a powerful tool more than any other news medium. For sports journalism, Twitter does not only provide a medium of relying messages, but also it is a source of information from influential people in leadership and corporate bodies. Moreover, Twitter allows people to respond to news bite and express tier feeling on any particular topic that is relayed to them. It thus becomes efficiently for journalist to follow-up on their stories and get back with an informed judgment (Sanderson & Hambrick, 2012). Moreover, because journalist has focused on framing as a practice to shape what people perceives of the news, it has become efficient for this to happen via Twitter because it target specific group of people. In conclusion, the use of social media has had a great influence in the sport as was evidenced by the reporting of Penn State University Story. It demonstrated that Twitter and other social sites offer interaction as well as delivering news. It thus has become convenient for both journalist and the consumers as it does not require too much spending and resources to convey messages. Sanderson, J., & Hambrick, M. E. (2012). Covering the Scandal in 140 Characters: A Case Study of Twitters Role in Coverage of the Penn Stage Saga. International Journal of Sport Communication,

The Importance Of A Sports Doctor

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When they have gathered a lot of information about the options of becoming a sports medicine, the best information will be their best decision depending on their choice. Certificate Programs in Sports Fitness Sports and fitness certificate programs are options for new college students, current athletic trainers, nutritionists, and other professionals who want to develop a new set of skills. Certificate programs will teach students how to apply accepted physical and psychological theory for the world of sports to see most professional careers in this field are requires having college degree, but students can transfer their completed certificate credits to a Associate or Bachelors Degree program that will allow them to continue there studies on becoming a sports medicine. Associate Degrees in Sports Fitness In Associate Degrees, students must complete two years of class that will allow them an access to the fundamentals of sports science or they may train players in a specific part, like exercise science and fitness. If students want to study on advance careers in sport medicine, they must have a bachelors degree with the certificate programs. It can be possible to transfer the credits if they earned and minimize their time to a degree. Associate degrees are qualified to graduate for entry-level positions of sports and fitness. Many students choose to earn these degrees because they can move on directly into the workforce and then earn a bachelors degree when they get there. Bachelors Degrees in Sports Fitness After students earned the Associates Degree, they must earn a Bachelor of Science degree because it is the minimum requirement for employment of sports medicine professions. Mostly, earning a Bachelor of Science in sports science needs to have four years of academic study in college. These degree programs acknowledge the general concepts of physiology, medical science, nutrition, health, and related training. Many schools offer different occupations like physical therapy, athletic training, and nutrition. Masters Degrees in Sports Fitness After four years of study experience to earn a bachelors degree, students can work up to earn a Master of Science degree. The Masters Degree can let them do advanced training in achieve of progressing upper-level job opportunities. There are many healthcare professionals that pursue a Master of Science degree with a study in many different kinds of sports science, such as human movement, sports psychology, sports science, etc. Masters Degree, in sports and fitness, introduce students with advanced scientific concepts and procedures that will qualify them to better serve the needs of athletes and injured individuals. It also encourages them on focusing their knowledge, abilities and skills in a way that will make them grateful successors for advanced positions. It is their decision if students who want to pursue on earning a Masters Degree while to continue working full-time. They could earn more money than a Bachelors Degree. (World Wide Learn, Guide to College Majors in Sports Medic ine Science) Other Advanced Sports Medicine and Sports Science Degrees After students earn a certificate, Associates degree, Bachelors degree, and Masters Degree, they can choose to become a Medical Doctor degree and be into a sports medicine or surgical specialties. They can earn this degree to work in professional sports, like NFL, NBA, or etc. There are many students who are interested in helping, counseling, and monitoring the mental health of professional athletes and would likely to succeed in PhD program that focuses on sports psychology and psychiatry. Students can also choose to be Sports Doctor of Education, which would mainly be interested in teaching and advising sports science to new students who want to become a sport medicine. Trends for Sports Science and Sports Medicine Careers Professional athletes from colleges and high school can continue to push themselves to perform a better, faster, and stronger body. As personal trainers and nutritionists careers increases, there will be opportunities for employment in the healthcare field. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) predicts that fitness and recreation professionals, physical therapists, and athletic trainers, will grow faster than average over the next decade, and athletes and coaches will continue to grow, while nutritionists and dieticians will grow at an average rate. Salary Expectations for Careers in Sports Medicine and Sports Science According to the BLS, the median salary for fitness instructors was $25,910 in 2006. Coaches and scouts took $26,950, while nutritionists and dietitians earned $46,980. The median salary for physical therapists is approximately $66,200 per year. Salaries and earnings depend on the level of education, location of job, and experience. (World Wide Learn, Guide to College Majors in Sports Medicine Science) Certification and Licensure Areas of sports medicine or sports science are needed to acquire a certification. Students need to plan a way to acquire the certification for their workplace of sports medicine or sports science. The most popular sports certifications are: the Board of Certification (BOC) certification for athletic trainers, the American College of Sports Medicine Certified Personal Trainer certification (cPT) and the Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS) certification. (World Wide Learn, Guide to College Majors in Sports Medicine Science)

The Effects of Industrialization on Norway’s Economy, Environment and P

The Effects of Industrialization on Norway’s Economy, Environment and Population Up until the beginning of the twentieth century, Norwegians were primarily fisherman and farmers. The fishing industry has been the basis of life and culture in Norway for hundreds of years. The fishing industry is still very important in Norway, however the discovery of oil in the North Sea has had a huge impact on the Norwegian economy and culture. Oil discoveries in the North Sea have made Norway a wealthy nation. Since the discovery of oil, Norway has become a highly industrialized country. Today, Norway has become very modern and technologically advanced. Industrialization is defined as, â€Å" To develop industry in (a country or society, for example)†. [30] The industry that is primarily being developed in Norway is oil. This industrialization has not only effected Norway’s economy but also its population and environment. Industry has brought a lot of jobs to Norway and many Norwegians are moving to Norway’s urban areas to be close to these jobs. More than 90,000 people work in the oil industry today. Around 20,000 are shift workers on the oil and gas platforms in the North and Norwegian Seas, Norway’s two main oil and gas-producing areas.[29] Unemployment in Norway is at an all time low. Immigration to Norway has increased because of the many job opportunities that the oil industry has brought to Norway. In my paper I will talk about the many ways in which industrialization has impacted Norway’s economy, population and environment. I think this is relevant to the class because it will entail discussions on immigration, economy, and population. Norway’s population grew more rapidly during the 19th century than during any oth... ...l obal+%2Bwarming+%2Bnorway&oq=&url=http%3A//www.dieoff.org/page129.htm&ti =The+Carbon+Bomb%3A+Climate+Change+and+the+Fate+of+the+Northern+Boreal+F orests&top=1486 [23] Greenpeace .org http://www.greenpeace.org/~climate/ [24] UDI http://www.udi.no/zengelsk/3834/index.html [25] A Place in the World Edited by Doreen Massey and Pat Jess [26] Away.com http://away.com/frames/lp.tcl?type=history&lp_region_id=310&page_id=01&page_locat ion= [27] Conde Nast Traveler http://www.concierge.com/run/concierge/OverviewDetail?geo_uid=5142 [28] Contemporary Review Magazine, May 1997 http://www.britannica.com/bcom/magazine/article/0,5744,239651,00.html?query=epz%2 0manufacturing [29] ODIN http://odin.dep.no/odin/engelsk/norway/economy/032005-990443/index-dok000-b-n-a.html [30] Dictionary.com http://www.dictionary.com/cgi-bin/dict.pl?term=industrialization

Chinese Literature Essay

2000 by Andre Levy All rights reserved No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in. writing from the publisher. The Association of American University Presses’ Resolution on Permissions constitutes the only exception to this prohibition. The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39. 48-1984. Manufactured in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Levy, Andre, date [La litterature chinoise ancienne et classique. English] Chinese literature, ancient and classical / by Andre Levy ; translated by William H. Nienhauser, Jr. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-253-33656-2 (alk. paper) 1. Chinese literature—History and criticism. I. Nienhauser, William H. II. Title. PL2266. L48 2000 895. 1’09—dc21 99-34024 1 2 3 4 5 05 04 03 02 01 00. For my own early translators of French, Daniel and Susan Contents ix Preface 1 Introduction Chapter 1: Antiquity 5 I. Origins II. â€Å"Let a hundred flowers bloom, Let a hundred schools of thought contend! † 1. Mo zi and the Logicians 2. Legalism 3. The Fathers of Taoism III. The Confucian Classics 31 Chapter 2: Prose I. Narrative Art and Historical Records II. The Return of the â€Å"Ancient Style† III. The Golden Age of Trivial Literature IV. Literary Criticism Chapter 3: Poetry 61 I. The Two Sources of Ancient Poetry 1. The Songs of Chu 2. Poetry of the Han Court II. The Golden Age of Chinese Poetry 1. From Aesthetic Emotion to Metaphysical Flights 2. The Age of Maturity 3. The Late Tang III. The Triumph of Genres in Song Chapter 4: Literature of Entertainment: The Novel and Theater 105 I. Narrative Literature Written in Classical Chinese II. The Theater 1. The Opera-theater of the North 2. The Opera-theater of the South III. The Novel 1. Oral Literature 2. Stories and Novellas 3. The â€Å"Long Novel† or Saga Index 151 Translator’s Preface. I first became- interested in translating Andre Levy’s history of Chinese literature, La litterature chinoise ancienne et classique (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1991), in 1996, after finding it in a bookshop in Paris. I read sections and was intrigued by Professor Levy’s approach, which was modeled on literary genres rather than political eras. I immediately thought about translating parts of the book for my graduate History of Chinese Literature class at the University of Wisconsin, a class in which the importance of dynastic change was also downplayed. Like many plans, this one was set aside. Last spring, however, when the panel on our field’s desiderata headed by David Rolston at the 1998 Association for Asian Studies Meeting pronounced that one of the major needs was for a concise history of Chinese literature in about 125 pages (the exact length of Professor Levy’s original text), I revived my interest in this translation. I proposed the book to John Gallman, Director of Indiana University Press, and John approved it almost immediately-but, not before warning me that this kind of project can take much more time than the translator originally envisions. Although I respect John’s experience and knowledge in publishing, I was sure I would prove the exception. After all, what kind of trouble could a little book of 125 pages cause? I soon found out. Professor Levy had originally written a much longer manuscript, which was to be published as a supplementary volume to Odile Kaltenmark-Ghequier’s La Litterature chinoise (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948)’ in the Que sais-je? (What Do I Know? ) series. This concept, however, was soon abandoned, and it ‘Several decades ago Anne-Marie Geoghegan translated this volume as Chinese Literature (New York: Walker, 1964). x Translator’s Preface was decided to publish the Levy â€Å"appendix† as a separate volume-in 125 pages. Professor Levy was then asked to cut his manuscript by one-third. As a result, he was sometimes forced to presume in his audience certain knowledge that some readers of this book-for example, undergraduate students or interested parties with little background in Chinese literature-may not have. For this reason, working carefully with Professor Levy, I have added (or revived) a number of contextual sentences with these readers in mind. More information on many of the authors and works discussed in this history can be found in the entries in The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature (volumes 1 and 2; Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1986 and 1998). Detailed references to these entries and other relevant studies can be found in the â€Å"Suggested Further Reading† sections at the end of each chapter (where the abbreviated reference Indiana Companion refers to these two volumes). I also discovered that re-translating Professor Levy’s French translations of Chinese texts sometimes resulted in renditions that were too far from the original, even in this age of â€Å"distance education. † So I have translated almost all of the more than 120 excerpts of original works directly from the original Chinese, using Professor Levy’s French versions as a guide wherever possible. All this was done with the blessing and cooperation of the author. Indeed, among the many people who helped with this translation, I would like to especially thank Professor Andre Levy for his unflinching interest in and support of this translation. Professor Levy has read much of the English version, including all passages that I knew were problematic (there are no doubt others! ), and offered comments in a long series of letters over the past few months. Without his assistance the translation would never have been completed. Here in Madison, a trio of graduate students have helped me with questions Translator’s Preface xi about the Chinese texts: Mr. Cao Weiguo riftlal, Ms. Huang Shu—yuang MV and Mr. Shang Cheng I*. They saved me E, from innumerable errors and did their work with interest and high spirits. Mr. Cao also helped by pointing out problems in my interpretation of the original French. Mr. Scott W. Galer of Ricks College read the entire manuscript and offered a number of invaluable comments. My wife, Judith, was unrelenting in her demands on behalf of the general reader. The most careful reader was, however, Jane Lyle of Indiana University Press, who painstakingly copy-edited the text. If there is a literary style to this translation, it is due to her efforts. My thanks, too, to the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation which supported me in Berlin through the summer of 1997 when I first read Professor Levy’s text, and especially to John Gallman, who stood behind this project from the beginning. Madison, Wisconsin, 16 February 1999 (Lunar New Year’s Day) Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical Introduction Could one still write, as Odile Kaltenmark-Ghequier did in 1948 in the What Do I Know series Number 296, which preceded this book, that â€Å"the study of Chinese literature, long neglected by the Occident, is still in its  infancy? â€Å"‘ Yes and no. There has been some spectacular progress and some foundering. At any rate, beginning at the start of the twentieth century, it was Westerners who were the first-followed by the Japanese, before the Chinese themselves-to produce histories of Chinese literature. Not that the Chinese tradition had not taken note of an evolution in literary genres, but the prestige of wen 5 signifying both â€Å"literature† and â€Å"civilization,† placed it above history-anthologies, compilations, and catalogues were preferred. Moreover, the popular side of literature-fiction, drama, and oral verse-because of its lack of â€Å"seriousness† or its â€Å"vulgarity,† was not judged dignified enough to be considered wen. Our goal is not to add a new work to an already lengthy list of histories of Chinese literature, nor to supplant the excellent summary by Odile Kaltenmark-Ghequier which had the impossible task of presenting a history of Chinese literature in about a hundred pages. Our desire would be rather to complement the list by presenting the reader with a different approach, one more concrete, less dependent on the dynastic chronology. Rather than a history, it is a picture-inevitably incompleteof Chinese literature of the past that this little book offers. Chinese â€Å"high† literature is based on a â€Å"hard core† of classical training consisting of the memorization of texts, nearly a half-million characters for every candidate who reaches the highest competitive examinations. We might see the classical art of writing as the arranging, in an appropriate and astute fashion, of lines recalled by memory, something ,’Odile Kaltenmark-Ghequier, â€Å"Introduction,† La litterature chinoise (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1948), p. 5; â€Å"Que sais—je,† no. 296. 2 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical that came almost automatically to traditional Chinese intellectuals. The goal of these writers was not solely literary. They hoped through their writings to earn a reputation that would help them find support for their efforts to pass the imperial civil-service examinations and thereby eventually win a position at court. Although there were earlier tests leading to political advancement, the system that existed nearly until the end of the imperial period in 1911 was known as the jinshi A ± or â€Å"presented scholar† examination (because successful candidates were â€Å"presented† to the emperor), and was developed during the late seventh and early eighth centuries A. D. It required the writing of poetry and essays on themes set by the examiners. Successful candidates were then given minor positions in the bureaucracy. Thus the memorization of a huge corpus of earlier literature and the ability to compose on the spot became the major qualifications for political office through most of the period from the eighth until the early twentieth centuries. These examinations, and literature in general, were composed in a classical, standard language comparable to Latin in the West. This â€Å"classical† language persisted by opposing writing to speech through a sort of partial bilingualism. The strict proscription of vulgarisms, of elements of the spoken language, from the examinations has helped to maintain the purity of classical Chinese. The spoken language, also labeled â€Å"vulgar,† has produced some literary monuments of its own, which were recognized as such and qualified as â€Å"classics† only a few decades ago. The unity of the two languages, classical and vernacular, which share the same fundamental structure, is undermined by grammars that are appreciably different, and by the fact that these languages hold to diametrically opposed stylistic ideals: lapidary concision on the one hand, and eloquent vigor on the other. We conclude by pointing out that educated Chinese add to their surnames, which are always given first, a great variety of personal names, which can be disconcerting at times. The standard given name (ming Introduction 3 is often avoided out of decorum; thus Tao Qian Miff is often referred to En We will retain only the by his zi (stylename) as Tao Yuanming best known of these names, avoiding hao at (literary name or nickname), bie hao ZIJM (special or particular literary name), and shi ming (residential name) whenever possible: When other names are used, the standard ming will be  given in parentheses. The goal here is to enable the reader to form an idea of traditional Chinese literature, not to establish a history of it, which might result in a lengthy catalogue of works largely unknown today. We are compelled to sacrifice quantity to present a limited number of literary â€Å"stars,† and to reduce the listing of their works to allow the citation of a number of previously unpublished translations, inevitably abridged but sufficient, we hope, to evoke the content of the original. The chronological approach will be handled somewhat roughly because of the need to follow the development of the great literary genres: after the presentation of antiquity, the period in which the common culture of the educated elite was established, comes an examination of the prose genres of â€Å"high† classical literature, then the description of the art most esteemed by the literati, poetry. The final section treats the literature of diversion, the most discredited but nonetheless highly prized, which brings together the novel and the theater. Chapter 1. Antiquity Ancient literature, recorded by the scribes of a rapidly evolving warlike and aristocratic society, has been carefully preserved since earliest times and has become the basis of Chinese lettered culture. It is with this in mind that one must approach the evolution of literature and its role over the course of the two-thousand-year-old imperial government, which collapsed in 1911, and attempt to understand the importance (albeit increasingly limited) that ancient literature retains today. The term â€Å"antiquity† applied to China posed no problems until certain Marxist historians went so far as to suggest that it ended only in 1919. The indigenous tradition had placed the break around 211 B. C. , when political unification brought about the establishment of a centralized but â€Å"prefectural† government under the Legalists, as well as the famous burning of books opposed to the Legalist state ideology. Yet to suggest that antiquity ended so early is to minimize the contribution of Buddhism and the transformation of thought that took place between the third and seventh centuries. The hypothesis that modernity began early, in the eleventh or perhaps twelfth century in China, was developed by Naito Konan NAM 1 (1866-1934). This idea has no want of critics or of supporters. It is opposed to the accepted idea in the West, conveyed by Marxism, that China, a â€Å"living fossil,† has neither entered modern times nor participated in â€Å"the global civilization† that started with the Opium War of 1840. Nor is there unanimity concerning the periodization proposed in historical linguistics, a periodization which distinguishes Archaic Chinese of High Antiquity (from the origins of language to the third century) from Ancient Chinese of Mid-Antiquity (sixth to twelfth centuries), then Middle Chinese of the Middle Ages (thirteenth-sixteenth centuries) from Modern Chinese (seventeenth-nineteenth centuries), and Recent Chinese (18401919) from Contemporary Chinese (1920 to the present). 6 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical. In the area of literature, the beginning of the end of antiquity could perhaps be placed in the second century A. D. Archaeology has elevated our knowledge of more ancient writings toward the beginning of the second millennium B. C. , but this archaic period, discovered recently, cannot be considered part of literary patrimony in the strictest sense. Accounts of this archaic period are traditionally divided into six eras,2 but to honor them would be to fall into the servitude of a purely chronological approach. I. Origins Since the last year of the last century, when Wang Yirong . 1. 6M (1845-1900) compiled the first collection of inscriptions written on bones and shells, the increasing number of archaeological discoveries has allowed the establishment of a corpus of nearly 50,000 inscriptions extending over the period from the fourteenth to the tenth centuries before our era. Dong Zuobin (1895-1963) proposed a periodization for them and distinguished within them the styles of different schools of scribes. Scholars have managed to decipher a third of the total of some 6,000 distinct signs, which are clearly related to the system of writing used by the Chinese today-these were certainly not primitive forms of characters. The oracular inscriptions are necessarily short-the longest known text, of a hundred or so characters, covers the scapula of an ox and extends even over the supporting bones; the shell of a southern species of the great tortoise, also used to record divination, did not offer a more extensive surface. Whether a literature existed at this ancient time seems rather doubtful, but this scriptural evidence causes one to consider whether eras are the early Chou dynasty (eleventh century-722 B. C. ), the Spring and Autumn era (722-481 B. C. ), the Warring States (481-256 B. C. ), the Ch’in dynasty (256-206 B. C. ), the Western or Early Han dynasty (206 B. C. -A. D. 6), and the Eastern or Latter Han dynasty (25-A. D. 220). 2These Chapter 1. Antiquity 7 the Shu jing Efg (Classic of Documents), supposedly â€Å"revised† by Confucius but often criticized as a spurious text, was based in part on authentic texts. The presence of an early sign representing a bundle of slips of wood or bamboo confirms the existence of a primitive form of book in a very ancient era-texts were written on these slips, which were then bound together to form a â€Å"fascicle. † The purpose of these ancient archives, which record the motivation for the diviner’s speech, his identity, and sometimes the result, has been ignored. Of another nature are the inscriptions on bronze that appeared in about the eleventh century B. C. and went out of fashion in the second century B.C. They attracted the attention of amateur scholars from the eleventh century until modern times. Many collections of inscriptions on â€Å"stone and bronze† have been published in the intervening eras. The longest texts extend to as much as five-hundred signs, the forms of which often seem to be more archaic than those of the inscriptions on bones and shells. The most ancient inscriptions indicate nothing more than the person to whom the bronze was consecrated or a commemoration of the name of the sponsor. Toward the tenth century B. C. the texts evolved from several dozen to as many as a hundred signs and took on a commemorative character. The inspiration for these simple, solemn texts is not always easily discernible because of the obscurities of the archaisms in the language. An echo of certain pieces transmitted by the Confucian school can be seen in some texts, but their opacity has disheartened many generations of literati. II. â€Å"Let a hundred flowers bloom, Let a hundred schools of thought contend! † This statement by Mao Zedong, made to launch a liberalization movement that was cut short in 1957, was inspired by an exceptional period in Chinese cultural history (from the fifth to the third centuries 8 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical B. C. ) in which there was a proliferation of schools-the â€Å"hundred schools. † The various masters of these schools offered philosophical, often political, discussion. The growth of these schools paralleled the rise of rival states from the time of Confucius (the Latinized version of the Chinese original, Kong Fuzi TL-T- or Master Kong, ca. 551-479 B.C. ) to the end of the Warring States period (221 B. C. ). The â€Å"hundred schools† came to an end with the unification of China late in the third century B. C. under the Legalist rule of the Qin dynasty (221-206 B. C. ). This era of freedom of thought and intellectual exchange never completely ceased to offer a model, albeit an unattainable model, in the search for an alternative to the oppressive ideology imposed by the centralized state. Much of what has reached us from this lost world was saved in the wake of the reconstruction of Confucian writings (a subject to which we will turn shortly). The texts of the masters of the hundred schools, on the periphery of orthodox literati culture, are of uneven quality, regardless of the philosophy they offer. Even the best, however, have not come close to dethroning the â€Å"Chinese Socrates,† Confucius, the first of the great thinkers, in both chronology and importance. 1. Mo Zi and the Logicians. The work known as Mo Zi (Master Mo) is a collection of the writings of a sect founded by Mo Di g, an obscure personage whom scholars have wanted to make a contemporary of Confucius. It has been hypothesized that the name Mo, â€Å"ink,† referred to the tattooing of  a convict in antiquity, and the given name, Di, indicates the pheasant feathers that decorated the hats of the common people. Although we can only speculate about whether Mo Zi was a convict or a commoner, he argued for a kind of bellicose pacifism toward aggressors, doing his best to promote, through a utilitarian process of reasoning, the necessity of believing in the gods and of practicing universal love without discrimination. Condemning the extravagant expense of funerals as well as the uselessness of art and music, Mo Zi Chapter 1. Antiquity 9 wrote in a style of discouraging weight. The work that has come down to us under his name (which appears to be about two-thirds of the original text) represents a direction which Chinese civilization explored without ever prizing. Mo Zi’s mode of argument has influenced many generations of logicians and sophists, who are known to us only in fragments, the main contribution of which has been to demonstrate in their curious way of argumentation peculiar features of the Chinese language. Hui Shi Ea is known only by the thirty-some paradoxes which the incomparable Zhuang Zi cites, without attempting to solve, as in: There is nothing beyond the Great Infinity.. . and the Small Infinity is not inside. The antinomies of reason have nourished Taoist thought, if not the other way around, as Zhuang Zi attests after the death of his friend Hui Shi: Zhuang Zi was accompanying a funeral procession. When he passed by the grave of Master Hui he turned around to say to those who were following him: â€Å"A fellow from Ying had spattered the tip of his nose with a bit of plaster, like the wing of a fly. He had it removed by [his crony] the carpenter Shi, who took his ax and twirled it around. He cut it off, then heard a wind: the plaster was entirely removed without scratching his nose. The man from Ying had remained standing, impassive. When he learned of this, Yuan, the sovereign of the country of Song, summoned the carpenter Shih and said to him, â€Å"Try then to do it again for Us. † The carpenter responded, â€Å"Your servant is capable of doing it; however, the material that he made use of died long ago. † After the death of the Master, I too no longer can find the material: I no longer have anyone to talk to. (Zhuang Zi 24) Sons of the logicians and the sophists, the rhetoricians shared with the Taoists a taste for apologues. They opposed the Taoist solution of a 10 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical detached â€Å"non-action,† involved as they were in diplomatic combat. Held in contempt by the Confucians for their â€Å"Machiavellianism,† the Zhanguo ce Vg (Intrigues of the Warring States) remains the most representative work of the genre. It was reconstructed several centuries later by Liu Xiang gj 1-(4] (77-6 B. C. ), but the authenticity of these reassembled materials seems to have been confirmed by the discovery of parallel texts in a tomb at Mawang Dui gUttg in 1973. A great variety animates these accounts, both speeches and chronicles; they are rich in dialogue, which cannot be represented by this single, although characteristic, anecdote—it is inserted without commentary into the â€Å"intrigues† (or â€Å"slips†) of the state of Chu: The King of Wei offered the King of Chu a beautiful girl who gave him great satisfaction. Knowing how much the new woman pleased him, his wife, the queen, showed her the most intense affection. She chose clothes and baubles which would please her and gave them to her; it was the same for her with rooms in the palace and bed clothes. In short, she gratified her with more attention than the king himself accorded her. He congratulated her for it: a woman serves her husband through her carnal appeal, and jealousy is her nature. Now, understanding how I love the new woman, my wife shows her more love than I—it is thus that the filial son serves his parents, that the loyal servant fulfills his duties toward his prince. As she knew that the king did not consider her jealous, the queen suggested to her rival: â€Å"The king appreciates your beauty. However, he is not that fond of your nose. You would do better to hide it when he receives you. † Therefore, the new one did so when she saw His Majesty. The king asked his wife why his favorite hid her nose in his presence. She responded, â€Å"I know. † â€Å"Even if it is unpleasant, tell me! † insisted the king. â€Å"She does not like your odor. † â€Å"The brazen hussy! † cried the sovereign. â€Å"Her nose is to be cut off, and let no one question my order! † Chapter 1. Antiquity 11 The Yan Zi chunqiu *T-*V( (Springs and Autumns of Master Yen) is another reconstruction by Liu Xiang, a collection of anecdotes about Yan Ying RV, a man of small stature but great ability who was prime minister to Duke Jing of Qi (547-490 B.C. )-the state that occupies what is now Shandong. Without cynicism, but full of shrewdness, these anecdotes do not lack appeal; some have often been selected as anthology pieces, of which this one is representative: When Master Yan was sent as an ambassador to Chu, the people of the country constructed a little gate next to the great one and invited him to enter. Yan Zi refused, declaring that it was suitable for an envoy to a country of dogs, but that it was to Chu that he had come on assignment. The chamberlain had him enter by the great gate. The King of Chu received him and said to him: â€Å"Was there then no one in Qi, for them to have sent you? † â€Å"How can you say there is no one in Qi, when there would be darkness in our capital of Linzi if the people of the three hundred quarters spread out their sleeves, and it would rain if they shook off their perspiration-so dense is the population. † â€Å"But then why have you been sent? † â€Å"The practice in Qi is to dispatch a worthy envoy to a worthy sovereign; I am the most unworthy. . . .† 2. Legalism. The diplomatic manipulations and other little anecdotes we have seen in the Yan Zi chunqiu were of little interest to the Legalists, who took their name from the idea that the hegemonic power of the state is founded on a system of implacable laws supposing the abolition of hereditary privileges-indeed a tabula rasa that rejects morals and traditions. In fact, historians associate them with all thought that privileges efficacy. From this point of view, the most ancient â€Å"Legalist† would be the artisan of Qi’s hegemony in the seventh century B. C. , Guan Zi (Master Guan). The work that was handed down under his name is a composite text and in reality contains no material prior to the third century B. C. Whether or not he should be considered a Legalist, Guan Zi 12 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical embodies the idea that the power of the state lies in its prosperity, and this in turn depends on the circulation of goods. In sum, Guan Zi stands for a proto-mercantilism diametrically opposed to the primitive physiocraticism of Gongsun Yang (altV (also known as Shang Yang ), minister of Qin in the fourth century. Shang jun shu 1 (The 2 Book of Lord Shang), which is attributed to Gongsun Yang, gives the Legalist ideas a particularly brutal form: It is the nature of people to measure that which is advantageous to them, to seize the best, and to draw to themselves that which is profitable. The enlightened lord must take care if he wants to establish order in his country and to be able to turn the population to his advantage, for the population has at its disposal a great number of means to avoid the strictness that it fears. Within the country he must cause the people to consecrate themselves to farming; without he must cause them to be singly devoted to warfare. This is why the order of a sage sovereign consists of multiplying interdictions in order to prevent infractions and relying on force to put an end to fraud. (Shang jun shu, â€Å"Suan di†) Shang Yang’s prose is laden with archaisms, which hardly lighten the weight of his doctrine. It is in the work of Han Fei Zi 4-T- (ca. 280-233) that Legalism found its most accomplished formulation. The book Han Fei Zi contains a commentary on the Classic of the Way and of Power of Lao Zi in which the ideal of Taoist non-action is realized by the automatism of laws. The â€Å"artifice† of the latter may go back to the Confucianism of Xun Zi (Master Xun, also known as Xun Qing ,Ajja, ca. 300-230 B. C. ), a school rejected by orthodox Confucianism. Xun Zi, who happens to have been the teacher of Han Fei Zi, developed the brilliant theory that human nature inclines individuals to satisfy their egoistic appetites: it was therefore bad for advanced societies of the time. The â€Å"rites†-culture-are necessary for socialization. Xun Zi’s Chapter 1. Antiquity 13 argumentation was unprecedentedly elaborate, examining every facet of a question while avoiding repetition. In a scintillating style peppered with apologues, Han Fei Zi argues that the art of governing requires techniques other than the simple manipulation of rewards and punishments. The prince is the cornerstone of a system that is supposed to ensure him of a protective impenetrableness. The state must devote itself to eliminating the useless, noxious five â€Å"parasites† or â€Å"vermin:† the scholars, rhetoricians, knights-errant, deserters, and merchants (perhaps even artisans). 3. The Fathers of Taoism. A philosophy of evasion, this school was opposed to social and political engagement. From the outset Taoism was either a means to flee society and politics or a form of consolation for those who encountered reversals in politics and society. The poetic power of its writings, which denounced limits and aphorisms of reason, explains the fascination that it continues to hold for intellectuals educated through the rationalism of the Confucians. These works, like most of the others from antiquity that were attributed to a master, in fact seem to be rather disparate texts of a school. The Dao de jing ittitg (Classic of the Way and of Power) remains the most often translated Chinese work—and the first translated, if one counts the lost translation into Sanskrit by the monk Xuanzang WM in the seventh century A. D. This series of aphorisms is attributed to Lao Zi (Master. Lao or â€Å"The Old Master†), whom tradition considers a contemporary of Confucius. He is said to have left this â€Å"testament† as he departed the Chinese world via the Xian’gu Pass for the West. In their polemics against the Buddhists, the Taoists of the following millennium used this story as the basis on which to affirm that the Buddha was none other than their Chinese Lao Zi, who had been converting the barbarians of the West since his departure from China. Modern scholarship estimates that the Lao Zi could not date earlier than the third century B. C. The 1973 discoveries at Mawang Dui in Hunan confirmed what scholars had suspected for centuries: the primitive Lao Zi is reversed in respect to 14 Chinese Literature, Ancient and Classical  ours: a De dao jing â€Å"1,M1# § (Classic of Power and the Way). Its style, which is greatly admired for its obscure concision, seems to owe much to the repair work of the commentator Wang Bi . T3 (226-249). Thus it is tenable that the primitive Lao Zi was a work of military strategy. Whatever it was, the text that is preferred today runs a little over 5,000 characters and is divided into 81 sections (9 x 9). The Taoist attitude toward life is expressed here in admirably striking formulae, which lend themselves to many esoteric interpretations: He who knows does not speak; he who speaks does not know (#56). Govern a great state as you would fry small fish! (#60). Practice non-action, attend to the useless, taste the flavorless. (#63) The Zhuang Zi ate, written by Zhuang Zhou 4. -B1 or Zhuang Zi (Master Zhuang), was apparently abridged at about the same time as the Lao Zi, but at the hands of the commentator Guo Xiang # -IM (d. 312), who cut it from fifty-two to thirty-three sections. Scholars cannot agree whether the seven initial sections, called â€Å"the inner chapters,† are from the same hand of Zhuang Zhou as the sixteen following, called â€Å"the outer chapters,† and the final ten â€Å"miscellaneous chapters. † It is in the final ten that we find a characteristic arrangement of reconstructions from the first century, works of one school attributed to one master. In fact, it is the first part which gives the most lively impression of an encounter with an animated personality whose mind is strangely vigorous and disillusioned: Our life is limited, but knowledge is without limit. To follow the limitless with that which is limited will exhaust one. To go unrelentingly after knowledge is exhausting and c.